Annotated Glossary of Terms

Speakers use “figures of speech” (i.e., any intentional and creative deviation from the ordinary and simple mode of speaking) and rhetorical devices to get their message heard. The following are some of the most common and most effective ones—ones you’ll hear again and again and, hopefully, use again and again:

Alliteration—repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more words. For example, note the repetitive “Cs” in Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech:

“I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.”

Another good example is the repeated “L” sound in Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address.” It sounds like poetry:

“The world will little note nor longer remember what we say here…”

Allusion—a passing but intentional reference to another speech or literary work which brings the latter to the mind of the listener, adding weight to the speech. For example, Dr. King’s evocation of Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” with his “I Have a Dream” speech opening:

“Five score years ago…”

(Perfect allusion for the speech’s setting: the Lincoln Memorial.)

 Another example is the opening of the “Gettysburg Address” itself:

 “Four score and seven years ago…”

By deliberately using the archaic word “score,” Lincoln is alluding to the Bible and bringing the authority and solemnity of that holy text to one of America’s bloodiest battlefields.

Anaphora—repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses. Martin Luther King was certainly not the only speaker to use anaphora. But he probably used it more—and more effectively—in his “I Have a Dream” speech than most speakers do. For example, the repeated clauses that begin with:

“One hundred years later…”
“Now is the time…”
“We must…”
“We can never be satisfied…”
“Go back to…”
“I have a dream…”
“Let freedom ring…”

Antithesis—the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure. Two frequently-cited examples are found in John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address:

“Ask not what your country can do for you: ask what you can do for your country.”
“Let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate.”

Epistrophe—repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of successive clauses. For example, Ted Kennedy’s 1980 speech at the Democratic National Convention where he provokes audience reaction by ending a series of clauses accusing the opposing candidate of being:

 “…no friend of labor.”
“…no friend of this city and our great urban centers across the nation.”
“…no friend of the senior citizens of this nation.”
“…no friend of the environment.”

Metaphor—an implied comparison between two things that aren’t alike yet have something in common. The metaphor (and the simile which is an explicit comparison) create images that make a concept or abstract idea easier to comprehend. For example, Dr. King’s extended metaphor in his “I Have a Dream” speech:

“In a sense, we’ve come to our nation’s capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic…they were signing a promissory note…Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check…a check which has come back marked insufficient funds.”

He made the abstract ideas of freedom and justice as tangible and familiar as a bad check. Listening to the laughter that follows that line confirms that everyone in that audience knew exactly what he was talking about.

Parallel Structure—similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses. It is one of the basic principles of rhetoric and grammar that equivalent things be stated in co-ordinate grammatical structures.

For example, the repetition of successive “that” clauses in the “Declaration of Independence”:

“We hold these truths…that all men are created equal…that among these are…that to secure these rights…that whenever any form of government…”

Rhetorical Question—asking a question, not for the purpose of eliciting an answer, but for the purpose of asserting or denying something obliquely. For example, Bobby Kennedy asks in his “Mindless Menace of Violence” speech:

“Why? What has violence ever accomplished? What has it ever created?”

 A good speech answers the questions on the audience’s mind. The use of rhetorical questions helps to structure the answers to those questions or to refute counterarguments if it’s a persuasive speech. For example, “Why is this important?”, “What are the downsides to this approach?”

Besides figures of speech, there are other devices speakers use to make their speeches sound good and their ideas stick. These include repetition, what’s called the Rule of Three, structure, and theme.

Repetition—repetition is essential to writing for the ear. Whether it’s repeated sounds as in alliteration or repeated phrases as in anaphora or epistrophe or repeated words as in Lincoln’s use of (and play on) the word “dedicate” in his “Gettysburg Address,” you can’t expect the message to get across if it’s not repeated. After all, the listener can’t go back over what you’ve just said as he or she might if you’d written it on a page of a book or a paper. Important words need to be repeated to be remembered. Likewise, key statistics need to be repeated or, better yet, put into context so that the listener grasps their significance. Don’t just use percentages or numbers; try to put them in human and familiar terms; for example, that’s the size of New York City or that means that every third person in this room has the risk of being infected. Make the audience see and feel the number.

Rule of Three’s—also not technically a figure of speech, the rule of three’s is the recognition that there is something pleasing, complete, and rhythmical, and, therefore, memorable in repeating things in triads. For example, Lincoln’s famous conclusion to his “Gettysburg Address”:

“…and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

 Or Dr. King’s uplifting ending to his “I Have a Dream” speech:

“Free at last! Free at last! Thank God almighty, we are free at last!”

Structure—Memorable speeches are those that keep the audience engaged. They have an introduction that draws the audience in. A middle or body that contains the “meat” of the speech and is demonstrated through examples, images, and stories. And it has a conclusion. One that not only completes the speech but also, depending on the purpose of the speech, inspires the audience or moves them to act, or simply leaves them in a better place having heard what the speaker had to say.

The most moving part of the conclusion is the peroration. And a very effective peroration was Kennedy’s inaugural address beginning with the succession of imperatives to the various audiences “…ask not, what your country can do for you….” The memorable peroration isn’t just nice words, but it is a speaker who knows how to deliver them. JFK was a master of this.

Theme—a theme is a thread that pulls the pieces of the speech together and captures what the speech is about.

A good example of establishing a theme is Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address.” He uses the word “dedicate(d)” five times in this 272-word speech. He goes from a nation dedicated to a proposition to dedicating part of the battlefield as a cemetery, to re-dedicating the nation to its founding principles. Another is Bobby Kennedy’s “Mindless Menace of Violence speech.” In that speech, he is talking about how we are all part of the same human family. And, to convey that theme, he uses the word “common” again and again throughout the speech.